Trot, or by Its Youthful Name: Yuhaengga (1928–1945)
Briefly summarizing what has been covered so far:
A dominant part of the song culture of early 20th-century Joseon consisted of traditional songs, including primarily narrative songs (such as pansori, which is suitable for epic storytelling), or didactic instructional songs closer to literature, as well as the group of japga songs sung by singers of the lower social classes in public spaces, many of which can be traced back to Buddhist or Shamanist origins. Theater songs (manyo) can also be distinguished, which were sung either as part of theatrical performances or during intermissions, and possessed a mostly cheerful, entertaining character, though they were not devoid of a satirical edge. Naturally, there were also religious songs, children's songs, and many others, but alongside all of these, there existed another large and colorful group of songs: the rich realm of lyrical songs. Although folk songs are lyrical songs as well, we are now interested in those new kinds of songs that already appeared as part of the entertainment industry.
The above can also be well-distinguished chronologically, because traditional and didactic songs dominated the early period lasting roughly until the 1920s, whereas lyrical songs came to the fore in the late period starting from the 1930s.
In the previous part, we reviewed the enka that developed in Japan, which is a typical example of lyrical songs. We could see that nothing was created in a pure form, nor did it exist as such later on, as different musical genres and styles existed in continuous interaction with one another.
and the Joseon Gramophone Shop in Gyeongseong in the 1930s.
(Public Domain)
In Chapter 3, we could hear Kim Yeong-hwan's (under the pen name Kim Seo-jeong) song titled The Three Beggars / The Three Comrades, which is considered the overture to a new musical era. At first glance, the song might seem like a true enka, but somehow it is not—and more and more similar songs were born.
What are the main differences? The Three Beggars and its newer Korean counterparts are in duple meter, meaning they have a 2/4 or 4/4 pulsation, which differs both from the typically 3/4 rhythm of Japanese enka songs (the waltz rhythm) and from the rubato phrasing originating from kabuki/joruri that characterized contemporary ryūkōka songs. The Korean songs also use minor pentatonic scales, but the la-pentatonic scale appears in them early on, which is accompanied by different harmonic progressions than those in Japanese models, and this results in a different sense of harmony. The songs begin to adapt to Korean textual prosody, meaning that stresses and syllable lengths adjust to the Korean language. The essence of all this is that these new songs did not replace Japanese enka, but rather, Koreans reshaped it in their own image.
Regarding the theme of the songs, the Encyclopedia of Korean Culture writes: "The emotional content of trot lyrics is almost identical to that of melodramatic novels, plays, and films. Trot is characterized by a tendency toward the suppression of desires and resignation, a lack of possibility for resolution or adaptation in conflicts with the world or others, and it dissolves this defeat through self-torture and self-pity. Consequently, trot is often a song of deep sorrow and sadness, frequently depicting unrequited love, pessimism regarding the inability to find happiness, and the suffering of a traveler unable to settle down after leaving home." In the continuation, they write that this mood is somewhat counterbalanced by the love of life and cheerfulness of new folk songs—well, we shall see in the next part if that is indeed the case.
Okeh Records led the golden age of popular songs in the 1930s and 1940s,
making its artists, including Go Bok-soo, Kim Jeong-gu, Nam In-soo, Lee Nan-young,
and the Jeogori Sisters, the most popular stars of their era.
The explanation of the name trot:
The foxtrot spread in Japan during the 1920s and 1930s, and the enka developed from its Japanese adaptation. In Korean usage, foxtrot was shortened to trot to express the musical pulsation of the foxtrot, initially only as a designation for songs in duple meter, and then as the name of an entire genre in the 1950s. It is from this situation that those funny examples arise when singers of the pre-war period began to be called trot singers, even though they themselves never encountered this designation and never considered themselves as such.
This direction, however, was only one of those that grew out of the blending of enka and Korean musical characteristics. The other large group of songs reached back rather to the traditional Korean musical world, and fused its characteristics with enka into another type of music, which at this time was called new folk songs, and which will be discussed in the next chapter.
In connection with this, I found the following interesting fact:
As the head of Okeh Records, the only Korean record label operating during the times of Japanese rule, Lee Cheol naturally possessed extensive pro-Japanese connections—how else could it have operated? However, upon reviewing the label's activities, the aforementioned research institute concluded that both the company and the staff belonging to it (meaning the contracted authors, musicians, and singers as well) were in a position of subordination to the Japanese. The recording of pro-Japanese songs took place during the wartime period, when this influence became much stronger, and resistance became nearly impossible. The reason for this can also be found in the fact that during the occupation, and for a long time afterward, a military/bureaucratic ranking system was in use, namely 갑·을·병·정. This meant a hierarchy according to Chinese numbering or the letters of the alphabet, by which a rank within a company or institution was expressed, in this manner:
Hanja (한자 / 漢字)-derived rank designation:
- 갑 (甲) = Category "A" (highest)
- 을 (乙) = Category "B"
- 병 (丙) = Category "C"
- 정 (丁) = Category "D"
This is an official numbering system of ancient Chinese origin (천간 天干 – "heavenly stems"), which was used in contracts, rankings, military classifications, and even school registers. Since those belonging to Okeh Records did not even reach level B in the musical hierarchy, belonging rather to categories C–D, they were considered insignificant, rankless, and of low prestige. And this was the reason that the investigations ultimately concluded by taking their vulnerability into account.
Lee Nan-young (1916-1965)
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| Lee Nan-young (Public Domain) |
Her real name was Lee Ok-rye, and as a child, she grew up in poor family circumstances and poverty. Upon moving to Jeju, she reportedly even worked as a haenyeo, while her mother became a housekeeper for a Japanese family—and as life would have it, this very family was the operator of Changsimgwan, Jeju's first modern theater. This is how Lee Nan-young began her career there, later coming to be considered one of the "three treasures" of the contemporary music industry, alongside composer Park Si-chun and lyricist Ban Ya-wol (Jin Bang-nam). She officially debuted at Okeh Records in 1933, and countless highly successful songs are tied to her name. She was the sole Korean to compete in a Japanese-organized singing competition, and she later recorded the award-winning song from the first Korean lyric-writing contest. She also possessed an excellent flair for singing blues and jazz. She was a member of several theatrical troupes, and she starred in the first musical film, The Song of Joseon, in 1936. Two years later, a collection of her masterpieces was released. During the war years, however, American-style songs were banned, and record publishing also became difficult. Okeh Records therefore established a touring company that had several sub-units; one of these, the Jeogori Sisters, can even be regarded as the first Korean girl group.
In her private life, Lee Nan-young was not nearly as successful. In 1936, she married composer Kim Hae-song, who was considered a genius of the popular music world, a marriage that produced three daughters and four sons. Following the war, in 1948, Lee attempted suicide, presumably due to her husband's affair. During this period, they toured military camps with the KPK Musical Troupe founded by her husband, offering comfort to them by performing various musicals. Lee performed in these as well, and despite being a woman, she even played the roles of Romeo (Romeo and Juliet) and Don José (Carmen Fantasy). However, the Korean War soon broke out, and her husband, who was unable to escape, was abducted and taken to North Korea. According to uncertain information, the man died while imprisoned in the mid-1950s, while other sources state he lost his life during an airstrike.
Following this, Lee moved with her children to Busan, where she subjected them to rigorous vocal training while taking on performances at American military bases. Ultimately, her two daughters debuted with their cousin in 1953 under the name Kim Sisters, and soon became world-famous. Her three sons founded a trio called Kim Boys in 1961, and following the girls, they too moved to the United States. Living in loneliness, Lee was by then addicted to alcohol and opium, having become habituated to the latter to alleviate chronic stomach cramps that had persisted since her youth.
She fell in love with the renowned singer Nam In-soo, but due to the man's illness, this relationship could not last long; nevertheless, Lee nursed him until the very end. Following Nam's death in 1962, Lee stayed with her children in America for a short time but returned home in 1963. She still had performances, though in dwindling numbers, with the last one in 1965, not long before her death.
Her most famous recording is Tears of Mokpo (목포의 눈물), which is also frequently referred to as the "mother song of trot." Okeh Records and the Dong-A Ilbo jointly announced a lyric-writing contest in 1935 (this was the first of its kind in Joseon), and the theme was to write an anthem dedicated to one of ten pre-designated cities. The award-winning contestant's poem, submitted under a pseudonym, was about Mokpo, so they looked for a singer from there to perform the song, which is how Lee Nan-young received it. The melody of an earlier composition by composer Son Mok-in was paired with the lyrics.
In this recording, Lee Nan-young sings a duet with her husband, Kim Hae-song:
Hesitation (duet)
(Lee Nan-young):
If you are bound to leave, why did you come? If you are bound to leave, why did you come?
To make me cry and then leave, why on earth did you come?
Setting a fire inside an innocent, pure heart,
To make me cry and then leave, why on earth did you come?
(Kim Hae-song):
Circumstances dictate that I must go, circumstances dictate that I must go,
How could you be so incredibly unyielding?
Though my body departs, does my mind depart as well? [meaning: my heart stays with you]
This body of mine is always yours.
(Lee Nan-young):
If you leave, when will you return? If you leave, when will you return?
Leaving while crying, you are a fool!
Though you are someone I cannot live without if I let you go,
Sending you away with a smile, I am a fool as well.
(Kim Hae-song):
If I go, do I go for good? If I go, do I go for good?
Go I certainly will, but my affection remains behind.
If only I could soothe your fretting, aching heart,
If only I could soothe your anxious, aching heart!
Many of Kim Hae-song's compositions can be found on YouTube, for example, on this playlist as well:
Nam In-soo (1918-1962)
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| Nam In-soo (Public Domain) |
Regarding the colonial era, he was simply referred to as the "Emperor of Lyrical Songs." His real name was Choi Chang-su. He lost his father early on, and with his mother's remarriage, his childhood became quite difficult. As an adult, he severed all ties with his stepfather and his family. His musical career began in 1938, and with his beautiful voice, he naturally became a favorite of the audience. He sang nearly a thousand songs and enjoyed his popularity for two decades. Interestingly, the cover of all his albums was adorned with the exact same photograph, and no one knows why.
His wife was Kim Eun-ha, who had wanted to be an acrobat but gave it up for Nam's sake and lived only for her family, as they had four children. The love between Nam and Lee Nan-young "shook the world," but they did not divorce. Following Nam's death caused by tuberculosis, Kim, who was only 37 years old at the time, moved to the United States together with her children.
Night Sorrow (애수의 소야곡) is Nam
In-soo's debut song, which became popular only upon its second release,
with altered lyrics. It has as many English titles as there are places
written about it; it roughly means
Night Sorrow.
The lyrics follow the classic trot theme: it is a perfect example of suppressed desires, loneliness, self-pity, and sorrow drifting back into the past, accompanied by beautiful, poetic imagery (such as the door paper rustling in the wind).
애수의 소야곡
운다고 옛 사랑이 오리요만은
눈물로 달래보는 구슬픈 이 밤
고요히 창을 열고 별 빛을 보면
그 누가 불러주나 휘파람 소리
차라리 잊으리라 맹세하건만
못생긴 미련인가 생각하는 밤
가슴에 손을 얹고 눈을 감으면
애타는 숨결마저 싸늘하구나
무엇이 사랑이고 청춘이던고
모두 다 흘러가면 덧없건마는
외로이 느끼면서 우는 이 밤은
바람도 문풍지에 애달프구나
Nam In-soo's next song, The Fallen Tower of Love (무너진 사랑탑), is a hit with a completely different tone, faster-paced yet deeply dramatic and reproachful. It portrays the disappointment and bitter anger of the lyrical persona (a man), who recalls the romantic and solemn promises of the past while his beloved has unfaithfully abandoned him.
무너진 사랑탑
반짝이는 별빛 아래 소곤소곤 소곤대던 그날 밤
천 년을 두고 변치 말자고 댕기 풀어 맹세한 임아
사나이 목숨 걸고 바친 순정 모질게도 밟아 놓고
그대는 지금 어디 단꿈을 꾸고 있나
야속한 임아 무너진 사랑탑아
달이 잠긴 은물결이 살랑살랑 살랑대던 그날 밤
손가락 걸며 이별 말자고 울며불며 맹세한 임아
사나이 벌판 같은 가슴에다 모닥불을 질러 놓고
그대는 지금 어디 행복에 잠겨 있나
야멸찬 임아 깨어진 거문고야
봄바람에 실버들이 하늘하늘 하늘대던 그날 밤
세상 끝까지 같이 가지고 눈을 감고 맹세한 임아
사나이 불을 뿜는 그 순정을 갈기갈기 찢어 놓고
그대는 지금 어디 사랑에 취해 있나
못 믿을 임아 꺾어진 장미화야
Go Bok-soo (1911-1972)
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| Go Bok-soo (Public Domain) |
Baek Nyeon-seol (1914-1980)
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| Baek Nyeon-seol (Public Domain) |
The song evokes the typical "vagabond sorrow" of the colonial era: it tells the story of a painful farewell and the agony of separation on a stormy night in a nameless inn in the middle of nowhere. It features beautiful cultural images of the era, such as the soft light of the ajukkari (castor-oil) lamp.
The appearance of major pentatonic songs in 1940 is associated with Baek Nyeon-seol, with Sorrow of a Vagabond (나그네 설움). This epoch-making 1940 masterpiece turns once again to the vagabond theme. Through the metaphor of the wandering traveler, the text condenses the homelessness of the Korean people living under colonial oppression and the deep, collective pain (han) of those forced to leave their homeland.
The recording is from a 1968 television show, to which the surviving great singers of the pre-World War II era were invited.
Kim Jeong-gu (1916-1998)
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| Kim Jeong-gu (Public Domain) |
He came from a Protestant family in the territory of North Korea, and reportedly preserved his dialect from there throughout his life. Described as a cheerful, humorous personality, despite his sentimental hit song, he mostly sang manyos radiating a merry, folk-like atmosphere. Following the liberation, he frequently traveled to perform for Korean populations living in various countries, thus singing many times in the USA as well. His wish to revisit North Korea was also fulfilled, reaching it in 1985, and he was even able to sing there.
Kim possessed an exceptionally high vocal timbre, which is why most of his songs had to be transposed lower when performed by other male singers.
The record containing his greatest hit, the song titled Tearful Duman River, was released in 1938, but interestingly, the song initially did not achieve success. However, the Japanese Governor-General of Korea banned it in 1943, claiming that it promoted national consciousness. A film was made under the same title in 1963, and then the following year, a North Korean-themed radio broadcast finally brought the song its massive success.
Two anecdotes also circulate in connection with the song. One occurred in the 1950s involving the song's composer, Lee Si-woo (real name Lee Man-du). Working as a singer and composer in the 1930s, Lee remained completely unknown, and then in 1948, he participated in an anti-communist military operation, after which he held several high-ranking law enforcement and state positions. Sports Seoul reported that in the 1950s, following a raid held at an entertainment venue, the singer performing there was brought in, and it caught Lee's attention that the singer was performing his very hit. He even asked him if he knew the composer of the song, but the singer only remembered the original performer of the song. Lee reportedly burst out: "The author of the song is Lee Si-woo! Lee Si-woo! It was me!" Lee returned to the music industry in 1962 and had several more successful songs, but lost his life in a motorcycle accident in 1975.
The other story, of much less reliable authenticity, is also connected to the composer, who reportedly stayed by the Duman River during one of his tours. At the inn, he heard bitter crying at night, and learned that the crying woman's husband, Mun Chang-hak—who became a independence fighter and had not returned for years—had been executed a few days prior. Since the day of the man's death coincided with his birthday, his wife commemorated both, and then committed suicide by throwing herself into the river. Reportedly, Lee was inspired by this story to write Tearful Duman River. Mun was a real person and a proven independence fighter, but the date of his execution (1923) is not entirely consistent with this story of the song's origin (1935).
In the original version of the song, the trot ppongjjak pulsation is clear, but it is still interesting how Song So-hee managed to unfold a version from it in a 2018 broadcast of Immortal Songs 2 that almost evoked the feeling of a folk song. Perhaps this also proves how easily permeable genre boundaries were in the initial period.
눈물 젖은 두만강
Tearful Duman River
Boatman rowing in the blue waters of the Duman River
Carrying my beloved in that bygone past
Where did that departing boat go
My longed-for beloved, my longed-for beloved
When will you ever come
Even the river water weeps with a choked throat on a moonlit night
As this person who lost their beloved also sighs
A sorrowful plea choked with memories
My longed-for beloved, my longed-for beloved
When will you ever come
The maple leaves are tinged on the riverbank where my beloved went
When the night bird cries by the tearful Duman River
I miss that departed beloved of mine
My longed-for beloved, my longed-for beloved
When will you ever come
→ On to Part 6
Copyright Disclaimer: The archival images and documents featured in this article are either in the Public Domain or used under Fair Use guidelines for educational and historical purposes. The videos embedded and subtitled within this post are utilized in accordance with YouTube's terms of service (Content ID system) and with the consent of the respective copyright owners. This blog claims no ownership over the musical or visual works; all rights belong to their respective authors and publishers.
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This article was originally written in Hungarian for Ricemegatron Expert Film Blog and subsequently translated into English for Ricemegatron Expert: Korean Screen Insights. The English version was created with the assistance of Gemini AI, focusing on preserving the original tone, structure, and critical style of the author.
